Genotoxicity of Silver Nanoparticles: Mechanisms, Implications, and Future Perspectives for Human and Environmental Health

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ABSTRACT

The widespread integration of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) into consumer products, biomedical applications, and industrial processes has raised significant concerns regarding their potential cytotoxic and genotoxic effects on human health and the environment. AgNPs exhibit unique physicochemical properties, including high surface area-to-volume ratio, antimicrobial activity, and catalytic efficiency, which drive their commercial and scientific utility. However, their increasing prevalence necessitates a rigorous assessment of their genotoxic potential, encompassing DNA damage, chromosomal aberrations, and epigenetic modifications. This review synthesizes current literature on AgNP-induced genetic toxicity, elucidating molecular mechanisms such as oxidative stress, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and inflammatory responses. By integrating findings from in vitro and in vivo studies, we highlight the dose-dependent and size-specific effects of AgNPs across diverse biological systems. Additionally, we discuss critical factors influencing genotoxicity, including surface coatings, aggregation dynamics, and exposure pathways. The environmental persistence of AgNPs and their bioaccumulation in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems further underscore the need for comprehensive risk assessment frameworks. This review aims to bridge existing knowledge gaps by proposing standardized toxicity evaluation protocols, advancing mechanistic understanding, and advocating for sustainable nanomaterial design. Ultimately, our analysis informs regulatory policies, promotes safer AgNP applications, and encourages the development of mitigation strategies to minimize adverse health and ecological impacts.

Significance of the Study:

This study critically evaluates the genotoxic potential of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), addressing growing concerns over their widespread use in consumer and biomedical applications. By synthesizing evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies, it highlights mechanisms like oxidative stress, DNA damage, and inflammation, offering insights into human and environmental risks. The findings underscore the need for stringent safety guidelines, safer nanoparticle designs, and regulatory frameworks, ensuring responsible innovation in nanotechnology while minimizing adverse health and ecological impacts.

Summary of the Study:

This review consolidates research on AgNP-induced genotoxicity, emphasizing DNA damage, chromosomal aberrations, and epigenetic modifications. It explores synthesis methods, characterization techniques, and toxicity mechanisms, including ROS generation and mitochondrial dysfunction. Comparative analysis of in vitro and in vivo studies reveals dose- and size-dependent effects, urging standardized testing protocols. The study advocates for balanced risk-benefit assessments, proposing safer AgNP alternatives and regulatory measures to mitigate risks while harnessing their antimicrobial and industrial potential for sustainable advancements.